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Making content publicly available requires hosting space such as the LAMP stack see below. Developers may create their own websites in Cascade Server, tailored to the specific needs of their units. Independent developers will implement websites using highly customized layouts, workflows, and CMS features and functionality. Microsoft SharePoint Blog. SharePoint tools are incredibly simple and intuitive, even for novice users. The accounting profession in Australia has been reluctant to reignite the debate about recommending on a specific and ideal measurement system and has failed to issue comprehensive measurement guidelines.
Instead, in the profession adopted the measurement guidelines contained in the International Accounting Standards Board's IASB conceptual framework. The IASB has rather an unstructured approach, with the accounting standards allowing adoption of current value measurement concepts to be mixed with historical cost. Normative theories are distinguished because they adopt an objective ideal stance and then specify the means of achieving the stated objective.
They provide prescriptions for what should occur to achieve their stated objective. As mentioned, the major focus of the normative accounting theories during the period was the impact of changing prices on the value of assets and the calculation of profit such theories were often seen as a consequence of the record levels of inflation experienced during this period. During the normative period, the idea of a 'conceptual framework' gained increased popularity. A 'conceptual framework' is a structured theory of accounting.
The result was the publication of An lnquiry into the Nature of Accounting, which aimed at developing a framework of accounting theory by providing a discussion of the nature and meaning of accounting. These frameworks had a common logical approach. They first stated the objective purpose of accounting and then worked downwards to derive accounting principles and rules that fulfilled that objective.
The normative period began drawing to an end in the early s, and was replaced by the 'specific scientific theory' period, or the 'positive era' The two main factors that prompted the demise of the normative period were: the unlikelihood of acceptance of any one particular normative theory the application of financial economic principles, increased supply of data and testing methods.
Because normative accounting theories prescribe how accounting should be practised, they are based on opinions of what the accounts should report, and the best way to do that.
Henderson, Peirson and Brown12 outline the two major criticisms of normative theories in the early s: Normative theories do not necessarily involve empirical hypothesis testing. Normative theories are based on value judgements. Further, the underlying assumptions of some normative theories were untested, and it was unclear whether the theories had strong foundations or assumptions about the purpose of accounting. Pragmatically, it was also difficult to obtain general acceptance of any particular normative accounting theory.
The economics dictated it, as did the We will never know whether the world might have suffered a depression if Bernanke's Fed had not responded so aggressively. The fact that the global economy is no longer uncontrollably spiraling downward for , the Economist Intelligence Unit predicts growth of 2. Nor was it ordained that the panic gripping financial markets just six months ago would subside.
From recent lows in March, the US stockmarket is now up roughly 50 per cent. It is not that Bernanke's performance was flawless. Far from it. He made two blunders. First, he didn't see the crisis coming. Even after the collapse of the investment bank Bear Stearns in March , he didn't foresee a widespread financial panic or a savage recession.
Second, along with the then-treasury secretary Henry Paulson, Bernanke allowed Lehman Brothers to go bankrupt in September. Both have said they lacked the legal power to rescue Lehman and that no one wanted to buy it. If Bernanke and Paulson had fully anticipated the consequences of Lehman's failure, they almost certainly would have found a way to save it.
Once Lehman collapsed, the crisis got much worse. Banks retreated from lending to each other, investors wouldn't buy new bonds, banks, consumers and businesses hoarded cash.
The economy contracted at an annual rate of 5 per cent to 6 per cent. Here is where Bernanke distinguished himself. A student of the Great Depression, and especially of the disastrous effects of bank failures, he went well beyond the standard response of lowering interest rates the overnight Fed funds rate dropped effectively to zero by December. It supported markets for mortgages, money market funds, commercial paper, auto loans and student loans.
Although there were other actors, the Fed's interventions were decisive in halting the panic. It is an open question whether any other Fed chairman - someone without Bernanke's detailed knowledge of the Depression - would have been so bold in supporting credit markets.
Moreover, Bernanke's approach inspired similar moves abroad. But this is also Bernanke's burden. If the Fed doesn't withdraw all that extra credit quickly enough, it may spawn inflation. If it withdraws it too quickly, it may subvert recovery. The article describes how a particular theoretical approach has been replaced by another. Explain why one theory replaces another, and who, or what, determines whether an existing theory survives. Does the reintroduction of a theory mean that it should not have been replaced in the first place?
Should a theory be discarded if it does not specify the means of achieving a stated objective? Explain your answer. Positive accounting The dissatisfaction with normative theories, combined with increased access to empirical data sets and an increasing recognition of economic arguments within the accounting literature, led to the shift to a 'new' form of empiricism which operates under the broad label of 'positive theory'.
Positive theory sought to provide a framework for explaining the practices which were being observed; that is, whether what practising accountants produced had a decision- usefulness objective, whether it filled other roles, and whether it was inferior or superior to proposed alternatives.
The objective of positive accounting theory is to explain and predict accounting practice. An example of a positive accounting theory is the theory that leads to what is known as the 'bonus plan hypothesis'.
If managers are remunerated partly with bonuses based on reported accounting profits, the managers have incentives to use accounting policies that maximise reported profits in periods when they are likely to receive bonuses. This theory leads to the prediction hypothesis that managers who are remunerated via bonus plans use profit-increasing accounting methods more than managers who are not remunerated via bonus plans.
Such theories are important since they explain the economic, or wealth, effects of accounting and why accounting is important to various parties such as shareholders, lenders and managers - all of whose personal wealth is affected by accounting decisions. By explaining and predicting accounting practice, Watts and Zimmeiman consider that positive theory has given order to the apparent confusion associated with the choice of accounting techniques.
They argue that positive accounting theory helps predict the reactions of investors in the market such as current shareholders to the actions of management and to reported accounting information. The problem with this approach is that wealth maximisation became the answer to every question. Basically, whatever the observed practice, it could be construed as a means of inaximising wealth normally for the firm, but sometimes for management.
To give the argument symmetry, the reverse argument could also be applied - namely, that the observed practice was to minimise the impact of costs or some external event on the value of the firm. The positive literature involves developing hypotheses about reality which are subsequently tested by observation of impact, usually based upon the assumption of wealth maximisation.
The approach has attracted criticisms which are largely based on the seemingly narrow approach that concentrated on agency theory and assumptions about the efficiency of markets.
The potential role of positive accounting theories in explaining and predicting behaviour is illustrated in theory in action 1.
The Bank of France announced an enquiry by the Banking Commission. SocGen declined to name the trader, but said he had been suspended pending dismissal after confessing to his actions. He now faces legal action from Societe Generale, which is in turn already being sued by a group of angry shareholders.
The bank accused the trader of taking "massive fraudulent" positions in and on European equity market indexes, meaning he was gambling on broad movements in share prices. When the bank discovered the concealed trades, it decided to close the positions in the market as quickly as possible, but this coincided with a sharp market sell-off, and the bank's losses on the deals spiraled to 4.
Like Leeson before him, the trader apparently benefited from knowledge of the bank's control systems after working in the back office of its trading rooms, according to SocGen. It said he had used a "scheme of elaborate fictitious transactions" to try to cover up his mistakes, but did not accuse him of profiting personally from his actions.
The announcement sent a shiver through the world banking industry, which is suffering a credit crunch as high-risk U. Lehman Brothers chief executive and chairman Richard Fuld called it "everyone's worst nightmare" in a comment from the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland. It seems incredible that the Societe Generale can lose 5 billion through one operator", said Alain Crouzat, a portfolio manager at Montsegur Finance.
Other said the crisis at SocGen, one of the top 10 banks in the eurozone by market value, could spell trouble elsewhere. In the light of this, what we've done is to downgrade banks that are very linked to trading income or whose capital base i s weak. Several said the bank, which has for years been coveted by larger French rival BNP Paribas, could face a battle to remain independent. SocGen said it expected a net profit of between and million euros, well below its profit figure.
Questions 1. Given this definition, who is ultimately responsible for the rogue trading outlined in the Societe Generale scandal - the trader directly involved; management, who are responsible for the high-risk framework in which the trader operated; or a combination of both?
Discuss the role played in the SocGen case by each of the following three elements: personality, institutional framework, and opportunity. How could Societe Generale have been unaware of the activity of its trader and of the environment that it had created for the trader to operate within? Explaln your answer.
Behavioural research is concerned with the broader sociological implications of accounting numbers and the associated actions of key participants such as managers, shareholders, creditors and the government as they react to accounting information. An example is a theory that predicts that loan managers cannot process all the financial information they receive, so they assess firms' credit risk using the information that is most relevant to the background of the loan manager. If the loan manager had been involved with loans to firms that defaulted on their debt agreements because of poor cash flows, despite profitable activities, it is predicted that the manager will place more reliance on cash flow information than other information.
On the other hand, if the loan manager had been involved with loans to firms that defaulted because of unprofitable operations, it is predicted that the manager will place more reliance on the reported profit or loss and earnings prospects of prospective borrowers. Note that, although it had a resurgence in the s and continues to be important, behavioural research in accounting emerged in the early s and first appeared in the accounting literature in Many stakeholders shareholders, government, and creditors are concerned about the failure of accounting information to signal such financial catastrophes and the apparent manipulation of accounting information and of those meant to independently report on financial information auditors.
In fact, in some of these cases such as Enron in and the collapses in the financial sector in it appears that the auditors colluded with management to mislead the external stakeholders. In one sense, this supports the positive view that at least one party was acting to maximise its wealth to the obvious detriment of others. This leads to an alternative view - if theory focused on the impact of accounting on behaviour rather than or1 explanations after the event of observed behaviour, the current corporate and reporting failures could well have been predicted.
Instead, as occurred in the aftermath of the s following the 'Great Crash' of the Wall Street exchange, the legislative reporting requirements have been increased significantly e. One view is that it is impossible to develop a single theory of accounting, as human greed, opportunism, future uncertainty, and a degree of naivety on the part of some stakeholders can never be captured in a theory of accounting per se.
Accounting standards and legislated reporting measures are the outcome of competing sets of interests and this may well be the place to begin developing a new theory of accounting behaviour. Either way, the current environment is one of increased disclosures and reporting requirements with legislated sanctions. But the key question is will this advance the development of theories relating to accounting measurements and disclosures?
Recent developments Both academic and professional interests in theory development have tended to be aligned in the past. Whereas the academic research emphasis remains in the area of capital market, agency theory, and behavioural impacts, the profession has pursued a more normative approach.
In particular, the profession has sought normative theories to unify accounting practice and make it more homogeneous, whereas academic researchers have sought to better understand the role and impact of different forms of accounting information. These positive and normative approaches are not incompatible, since an understanding of the impact of accounting is a factor that accounting standard setters consider in developing prescriptions for practice.
In the mid to late s, the Australian accounting profession was heavily involved in the conceptual framework debate in an attempt to provide a definitive statement of the nature and purpose of financial reporting and to provide appropriate criteria for deciding between alternative accounting practices.
It also included a detailed outline of the 'tentative building blocks of a conceptual framework for regulation of financial reporting'.
This was closely followed by ED 4GA-B in March , which outlined the concept of a reporting entity and provided definitions of the measurement and recognition of expenses. In , the AAR!? SAC 5, the controversial measurement statement, had not been released prior to the adoption of international financial reporting standards IFRS in The conceptual frameworks of the various countries are used in developing accounting standards and in attempting to reduce the inconsistencies arising from earlier fragmented theory and practice developments.
The need for a single, consistent framework has gained widespread acceptance in recent years. The IASB, in a joint project with the US Financial Accounting Standards Board, embarked on a new conceptual framework project in to update and improve the conceptual framework for standard setters and preparers of financial statements to use. The need for a single set of international accounting standards was acknowledged by the accounting profession in Australia with the adoption of IFRS in January International standards seek to harmonise practices across international reporting boundaries and to reduce the differences in reported information which are a direct consequence of different accounting choices.
This approach aims to eliminate accounting disclosures and techniques specific to one or a small group of countries which subsequently affects the comparability or integration of information, particularly for multinational and listed corporations. The assumption is that the same theoretical issues apply whether the standards are specific to one country or designed for global application. Figure 1. To reflect this, the book is divided into three parts: Part 1: Accounting theory chapters Part 2: Theory contributing to practice through accounting standards chapters Part 3: Accounting and research chapters Chapters 2 and 3 detail many different theory construction frameworks and then apply them to analyse examples from the accounting literature.
The 'parts' of a theory are detailed, the means of testing theories are considered and the chronological development of accounting theory is traced. Understanding the components of theory development is important for accountants, not just those who will become academics, but also those who need to understand the choice of alternative accounting methods and explain this to clients and stakeholders. It is also important to distinguish between theory development as it relates to the natural versus human sciences.
Accounting processes and information are the result of a complex set of human interactions and decisions which may not fit the traditional empirical or scientific process. When it comes to interpreting human behaviour, completely rational and systematic approaches may not apply.
To be a complete professional accountant one needs to understand the mainstream approaches to theory development, in order to specifically consider theories of accounting, the behaviours accounting information demands, and the advice needed by clients.
Thus, these chapters set down the fundamentals of taking a scientific perspective. Chapter 4 describes how, over time, the different perspectives of the different users of financial statements have influenced the focus of accounting. It covers issues such as whether the focus of accounting is on reporting the ownership interest in the firm or the financial affairs of the firm as a separate operating entity.
Basically, a significant number of choices and decisions are made to ensure the accounting methods fit the reporting entity. It is important to appreciate that human decisions, preferences and objectives will affect the accounting viewpoint adopted, which in turn drives the accounting choices made in recording, measuring and reporting accounting information.
This is an important chapter in the context that the IFRS has adopted a shareholder perspective rather than an entity perspective when determining the focus of accounting. Since measurement is fundamental to accounting, chapter 5 provides an introduction to some important technical issues in relation to measurement and to how it applies to accounting theory and practice. We learn that in fundamental measurement numbers can be assigned by reference to natural laws, but in accounting there is considerable debate over the nature of fundamental value.
We also learn that accounting is derived measurement that depends on the previous measurement of two or more other quantities. For example, we calculate income and expenses before profit is determined. Fiat measurements are those that relate numbers to properties of objects or events on the basis of arbitrary definitions.
Chapter G provides an overview of the accounting measurement systems from which the principles of fair value accounting can be said to be derived. The first section describes conventional historical cost accounting and the theoretical bases, criticisms and defence of the system. During the normative period, the historical cost system came under attack, and theories were developed to deal with the effects of changing prices on asset valuation and profit determination.
These theories focused on either buying prices current costs or selling prices exit prices. Thus, this chapter enables the student to place into perspective arguments about accounting measurement and the current debates about measurement in IFRS.
The definition and measurement of assets and liabilities are fundamental in determining the net value of the firm and, in many cases, the income and equity. Chapter 7 provides the definition of an asset and addresses measurement issues related to tangible, intangible and financial assets. The mixed measurement attribute model applied by IFRS is outlined as well as the concepts and methods behind different measurement methods.
Chapter 8 is concerned with the credit side of the balance sheet - liabilities and equity. Liabilities are first defined and applications associated with applying the recognition and mixed measurement criteria to employee benefits, pension liabilities, provisions and contingencies are discussed. The chapter finishes with the definition of equity as the residual interest in assets, discusses the concept of capital, and outlines the difference between debt and equity.
The calculation of profit has been a key component in accounting measurement over many years and forms a fundamental component in many valuation models, capital market research, agency contracts, taxation issues, social issues and the behaviour of individuals. Chapters 9 and 10 provide overviews of the issues faced in rhe two main components used to derive income - revenue and expenses. Discussion is provided about recognition criterion - from cash transactions through to more recent concepts such as the acquisition of a customer valued at exit price.
We also discuss the concept oC the comprehensive income. Expenses are defined and concepts such as economic benefits, expired costs and matching expenses and revenue are discussed in chapter One outcome of these two chapters is the ultimate consideration of the nature of profit and the alternative measurement rules that can give rise to quite different levels of reported profit.
Positive empirical accounting theory has been at the forefront of the academic accounting research agenda for several decades. Chapters 11 and 12 focus on the philosophy, scope and impact of positive theory on accounting theory development. Chapter 11 details the development of theories of accounting policy choice and revenue management. It focuses on contracting, agency and signalling theories, as a result of the divergence between managers and shareholders and debtors , that provide managers with incentives to manage accounting numbers to maximise the wealth of themselves or the firm.
Chapter 12 describes and explains the development of theories about the role of accounting information in the share market. It focuses on evidence of how share prices respond to accounting information, and why the information should influence either the price or amount of shares that are traded. The role and development of behavioural accounting theory are described in chapter This chapter explains how relaxing some of the assumptions underlying positive accounting theory and focusing on individual behaviour rather than on aggregate market behaviour influences an understanding of the role of accounting reports and their significance, in various contexts, to various parties.
The final chapter, chapter 14, discusses some recent controversial issues in accounting theory and regulation. Issues covered are the use of XBRL - a system that enables users to extract accounting data at a micro less aggregated level, the impact of Sarbanes-Oxley on the accounting and auditing professions, the role of fair values in the global financial crisis of , the IASB and FASB convergence program, and the impact of IFRS on auditors.
Finally, the chapter ends by summarising a number of issues in sustainability accounting. This research area is a growing extension to the traditional focus of accounting theory on financial issues. It examines social and environmental issues in an accounting context. Topics coveled include the Global Reporting Initiatives, climate change issues and accounting for carbon emissions rights, assurance problems, and water accounting.
Overall, this book aims to assist students to develop the necessary skills to interpret, discuss, evaluate and criticise competing theories and concepts, and to apply the elements of these theories and concepts to current accounting issues. More specifically, it aims to help students evaluate the current issues surrounding the introduction of IFRS on a scientific basis, using logic and empirical perspectives. Te2,Sydney: Random House.
Scott, W , Financial accounting theory, Toronto: Pearson. An Arrow-Debreu economy is when 7. Jermakowicz, Abacus, vol. A detailed analysis of the conceptual 2. E Hendriksen, Accounting theory, p. RJ Chambers, 'Why bother with historic cost and conservatism This L Goldberg, An inquiry into the nature postulates? Research, vol. Henderson, Peirson and Brown S Henderson, G Peirson and R overstate assets and net income'.
Chapters 1 1 and 12 provide a Brown, Financial accounting theory 8. Two examples of such books are: detailed analysis of the positive - its nature and development, 2nd K MacNeal, Truth in accounting, accounting literature. For further detail, see chapter Pennsylvania, ; and H Sweeney, R Watts and J Zimmerman, Positive 5. For a detailed discussion of the Stabilized accounting, New York: accounting theory, Englewood Cliffs, historical development of the Harper, NJ: Prenticr Hall, See, for example, 0 Edwards and Some of the classifications that have proven most useful are pragmatic, syntactic, semantic, normative, positive and naturalistic approaches.
Pragmatic approaches are based on observing the behaviour of accountants or those who use the information generated by accountants. Syntactic approaches rely on logical argument, based on a set of premises, and semantic approaches concern how theories correspond to real-world events. Normative theories rely on both semantic and syntactic approaches.
Positive approaches test hypotheses against actual events, and naturalistic approaches consider individual cases and do not try to generalise. This chapter provides some insight into how accountiilg theories in each of these classifications were formulated. We also note some of the weaknesses and criticisms of various theories. Later chapters consider the different types of theory in detail in relation to particular accounting issues.
Hence, a theory can be developed from observations of how accountants act in certain situations. The theory can be tested by observing whether accountants do, in fact, act in the way the theory suggests. Sterling called this method the 'anthropological approach':. If the accounting anthropologist sets forth the 'principle of diversity', then we can test this principle by observing whether or not accounting man does in fact record similar occurrences in different ways.
And so f0rth. Until quite recently, it was a popular way of learning accounting skills - future accountants were trained by being apprenticed or articled to a practising accountant.
However, there have been several criticisms of this approach to accounting theory construction: The descriptive pragmatic approach does not include an analytical judgement of the quality of an accountant's actions; there is no assessment of whether the accountant reports in the way he or she should.
This approach does not provide for accounting techniques to be challenged, hence it does not allow for change. For example, we observe practising accountants' methods and techniques and teach those methods and techniques to students. Those students will become practising accountants whom we will observe in the future to learn what to teach, and so on.
The descriptive pragmatic approach focuses attention on accountants' behaviour, not on measuring the attributes of the firm, such as assets, liabilities and profit. In taking a descriptive pragmatic approach, we are not concerning ourselves with the semantics of accounting phenomena.
His conclusion is, of course, in relation to normative theories of how accounting should be conducted rather than pragmatic theories that describe real- world practices. Psychological pragmatic approach In contrast to descriptive pragmatic approaches where theorists observe accountants' behaviours, psychological pragmatic approaches require theorists to observe users' responses to the accountants' outputs such as financial reports.
A reaction by the user is taken as evidence that the financial statements are useful and contain relevant information. A problem with the psychological pragmatic approach is that some users may react in an illogical manner, some might have a preconditioned response, and others may not react when they should. This shortcoming is overcome by concentrating on decision theories and testing them on large samples of people, rather than concentrating on the responses of individuals.
This interpretation may be described as follows: the semantic inputs of the system are the transactions and exchanges recorded in the vouchers, journals and ledgers - of the business.
These are then manipulated partitioned and summed on the basis of the premises and assumptions of historical cost accounting. For example, we assume that inflation is not to be recorded and market values of assets and liabilities are ignored.
We then use double-entry accounting and the principles of historical cost accounting to calculate profit and loss and the financial position. The individual propositions are verified every time the statements are audited by checking the calculations and manipulations.
However, the accounts are rarely audited specifically in terms of whether and how people will use them a pragmatic test or in terms of what they mean a semantic test. In this way, historical cost theory has been confirmed many times. If we assume a Lakatosian research program, the principles of historical cost accounting form the negative heuristic and, in a Kuhnian viewpoint, the dominant paradigm.
Some accounting theorists are critical of this approach. They argue that the theory has semantic content only on the basis of its inputs. There is no independent empirical operation to verify the calculated outputs, for example, 'profit' or 'total assets'. These figures are not observed; they ale simple summations of account balances, and the auditing process is, in essence, simply a recalculation.
The auditing process verifies the inputs by examining underlying documents and checks mathematical calculations. However, it does not verify the final outputs. This means that even if accounting reports are prepared using perfect syntax, they may have little, if any, value in practice.
Sterling comments: The inadequacy of this procedure to confirm a theory is immediately apparent. If one were to attempt to confirm a theory of astronomy, as exemplified by a particular planetarium, then one might begin by checking on the accuracy of the observational inputs and one might also check for errors in computation. One would look at the sky to see if the stars were in fact in the position indicated by the planetarium.
In the absence of this last step, several absurdities could result. First, the set of equations could describe any situation whatsoever, e. If one restricted the 'verification' procedure to a check on the accuracy of the inputs and a recalculation, then one would certify that this planetarium presents fairly the position of the stars.
The only way to discover that the orbit ought or ought not to be rectangular is to perform a separate operation and compare the results of that operation with the outputs of the system. If enough of these outputs were subjected to independent verification, the theory of rectangular orbits would be either confirmed or disconfirmed.
Second, if there were two planetariums concerned with the same phenomena but with different sets of equations resulting in contradictory outputs, then the auditing procedure would require that both of them be certified as correct when at least one of them is necessarily wrong.
Do share prices rise when profit improves? Metcash increased earnings per share by The article describes a market reaction to accounting news. This description provides an example of which approach to theory? Consider the following syllogism: When a company reports better prospects than previously, investors force that company's share price to increase. Metcash is a company that has reported better earnings per share than previously.
Investors forced Metcash share prices to increase. If so what is the flaw? What, then, about the procedure of adding the amount of cash held by a company today to the amount of cash paid 20 years ago for a piece of freehold land which the company still holds today? The distinctive feature of this philosophy is doublethink.
Doublethink means the power of holding two contradictory beliefs in one's mind simultaneously, and accepting both of them. Fixed assets should be carried at cost. In terms of a Popperian approach to science, many of the propositions of conventional accounting are not falsifiable. Take, for example, the following criticism of a definition of depreciation: Definitionsare unacceptablewhich imply that depreciationfor the year is a measurement, expressed in monetaly terms, ofthe physical deterioration within the year, or the decline in monetary value within the year, or, indeed of anything thai actually occurs within the year.
For example, depreciation depends on allocation, which in turn depends on a future sale disposal value and the expected useful life of the asset. The same is true for profit.
Under this logic, true profit cannot be determined until the firm has been liquidated. Theories based on historical cost conventions lead to cautious hypotheses. The hypotheses therefore are unable to be tested and, as per the falsificationist approach in which a hypothesis is not informative and does not add to scientific progress if it is not worded or proposed so that it is falsifiable , they are not useful for financial decision making except to verify accounting entries.
Hence, they are uninformative and do not add to knowledge or progress in accounting. The above criticisms of historical cost are essentially criticisms about measuring current values and were the forerunner of the current move of International Financial Reporting Standards IFRS towards 'fair value' accounting.
In defence of the historical cost system, accountants argue that there is no requirement that accounting outputs should have any semantic content correspondence with current real-world events, transactions, or values or be subject to falsification niles. They counter by using the argument that the role of accounting is to allocate the historical cost of resource usage against revenue - the matching concept - to determine the surplus secured from economic activity.
If we adopt this allocation approach, the definition of depreciation is then in accordance with the matching concept. Although it may be syntactic, this cost allocation assumption can conflict with normative theories about how we should account to provide information that is useful for decision making.
The assumption that accounting should be a measurement system, providing information useful for decision making, is a normative premise assumed by a large group of accounting theorists and regulators. The criticism that there are many different and acceptable historical cost allocation systems can be explained within a 'positive accounting' framework which makes the assumption that accounting information is an economic good, subject to demand and supply forces. Under positive approaches to accounting theory development, diversity of accounting techniques exists because diversity is required.
This is because different accounting techniques are needed to account for different business situations. For example, where firms are regulated by agencies that allow them to charge prices only on a cost-recovery basis, historical cost could be useful for management accounting price setting and for informing outside users of financial statements about the firm's likely future profits, and also as a means of influencing price-regulation agencies regarding the appropriateness of their price-setting formula.
The allocation of costs used for price setting might involve accelerated cost recognition, such as diminishing-balance depreciation over a short period of time because this gives high costs and leads to high prices being set for the firm's products.
However, a slower cost allocation might better reflect to outside users the likely life and vdlue of the assets. Agency theory suggests that the accounting technique required to minimise the costs of contracting will often differ from situation to situation.
Moreover, different political and regulatory costs affect each firm. Since firms seek to minimise all costs, they will choose different accounting techniques and because historical cost allocation allows a substantial number of allocation techniques, then firms can simply choose the most efficient technique.
During this period, accounting researchers became more concerned with policy recommendations and with what should be done, rather than with analysing and explaining the currently accepted practice. Normative theories in this period concentrated either on deriving the 'true income' profit for an accounting period or on discussing the type of accounting information which would be useful in making economic decisions. True income: True income theorists concentrated on deriving a single measure for assets and a unique and correct profit figure.
However, there was no agreement on what constituted a correct or true measure of value and profit. Much of the literature during this period consisted of academic debate about the rnerits and demerits of alternative measurement systems.
Decision-usefulness:The decision-usefulness approach assumes that the basic objective of accounting is to aid the decision-making process of certain 'users' of accounting reports by providing useful, or relevant, accounting data; for example, to help investors current and potential decide whether to buy, hold or sell shares.
One test of usefulness already discussed is the psychological pragmatic reaction to data. Others do not identify a particular group but argue that all users have the same requirement for accounting data. They usually make adjustments to historical cost measures to account for inflation or the market values of assets. They are, in essence, measurement theories of accounting. Sergio Verduzco, to be not only a fine doctor, but down-to-earth and attentive to their cosmetic concerns. Percival Bailey was an important contributor to many fields of the basic and clinical neurosciences, and a distinguished teacher and author.
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